Karbon monoksida: Béda antarrépisi
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'''Karbon monoksida''' ([[rumus kimia]]na [[karbon|C]][[oksigén|O]]) nyaéta [[sanyawa kimia]] anu diwangun ku hiji [[atom]] [[karbon]] nu [[beungkeut kimia|meungkeut]] hiji atom [[oksigén]] ku dua [[beungkeut kovalén]] jeung hiji [[beungkeut kovalén koordinat]]. Ieu [[gas]] nu tanpa warna, tanpa bau, jeung tanpa rasa téh |
'''Karbon monoksida''' ([[rumus kimia]]na [[karbon|C]][[oksigén|O]]) nyaéta [[sanyawa kimia]] anu diwangun ku hiji [[atom]] [[karbon]] nu [[beungkeut kimia|meungkeut]] hiji atom [[oksigén]] ku dua [[beungkeut kovalén]] jeung hiji [[beungkeut kovalén koordinat]]. Ieu [[gas]] nu tanpa warna, tanpa bau, jeung tanpa rasa téh mangrupa sanyawa karbon anorganik. Ieu sanyawa dihasilkeun tina [[durukan]] parsial sanyawaan nu ngandung karbon, utamana dina [[mesin durukan-internal]]. Mun diduruk sampurna, ieu sanyawaan bakal jadi [[karbon dioksida]]. Najan [[toksisitas]]na matak bahya, CO penting pisan pikeun téhnologi modéren salaku prékursor rupa-rupa produk. |
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== Produksi == |
== Produksi == |
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In the presence of strong acids and water, carbon monoxide reacts with [[olefins]] to form [[carboxylic acids]] in a process known as the Koch-Haaf reaction.<ref>{{OrgSynth | author = Koch, H.; Haaf, W. | title = 1-Adamantanecarboxylic Acid | year = 1973 | collvol = 5 | collvolpages = 20 | prep = cv5p0020}}</ref> In the [[Gattermann-Koch reaction]], [[Aromatic hydrocarbon|arenes]] are converted to [[benzaldehyde]] derivatives in the presence of [[aluminium chloride|AlCl<sub>3</sub>]] and [[hydrogen chloride|HCl]].<ref>{{OrgSynth | title = ''p''-Tolualdehyde | author = G. H. Coleman, David Craig | collvol = 2 | collvolpages = 583 | year = 1943 | prep = cv2p0583}}</ref> Organolithium compounds, e.g. [[butyl lithium]] react with CO, but this reaction enjoys little use. |
In the presence of strong acids and water, carbon monoxide reacts with [[olefins]] to form [[carboxylic acids]] in a process known as the Koch-Haaf reaction.<ref>{{OrgSynth | author = Koch, H.; Haaf, W. | title = 1-Adamantanecarboxylic Acid | year = 1973 | collvol = 5 | collvolpages = 20 | prep = cv5p0020}}</ref> In the [[Gattermann-Koch reaction]], [[Aromatic hydrocarbon|arenes]] are converted to [[benzaldehyde]] derivatives in the presence of [[aluminium chloride|AlCl<sub>3</sub>]] and [[hydrogen chloride|HCl]].<ref>{{OrgSynth | title = ''p''-Tolualdehyde | author = G. H. Coleman, David Craig | collvol = 2 | collvolpages = 583 | year = 1943 | prep = cv2p0583}}</ref> Organolithium compounds, e.g. [[butyl lithium]] react with CO, but this reaction enjoys little use. |
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Although CO reacts with [[carbocation]]s and [[carbanion]]s, it is relatively unreactive toward organic compounds without the intervention of metal catalysts.<ref>Chatani, N.; Murai, S. "Carbon Monoxide" in Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis (Ed: L. Paquette) 2004, J. Wiley & Sons, New York. {{doi|10.1002/047084289}}</ref> |
Although CO reacts with [[carbocation]]s and [[carbanion]]s, it is relatively unreactive toward organic compounds without the intervention of metal catalysts.<ref>Chatani, N.; Murai, S. "Carbon Monoxide" in Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis (Ed: L. Paquette) 2004, J. Wiley & Sons, New York. {{doi|10.1002/047084289}}</ref> |
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With main group reagents, CO undergoes several noteworthy reactions. [[Chlorination]] of CO is the industrial route to the important compound [[phosgene]]. With [[borane]] CO forms an adduct, H<sub>3</sub>BCO, which is isoelectronic with the [[acylium]] cation [H<sub>3</sub>CCO]<sup>+</sup>. CO reacts with [[sodium]] to give products resulting from C-C coupling such as Na<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (sodium acetylenediolate), and [[potassium]] to give K<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (potassium acetylenediolate) and K<sub>2</sub>C<sub>6</sub>O<sub>6</sub> (potassium rhodizonate). |
With main group reagents, CO undergoes several noteworthy reactions. [[Chlorination]] of CO is the industrial route to the important compound [[phosgene]]. With [[borane]] CO forms an adduct, H<sub>3</sub>BCO, which is isoelectronic with the [[acylium]] cation [H<sub>3</sub>CCO]<sup>+</sup>. CO reacts with [[sodium]] to give products resulting from C-C coupling such as Na<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (sodium acetylenediolate), and [[potassium]] to give K<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (potassium acetylenediolate) and K<sub>2</sub>C<sub>6</sub>O<sub>6</sub> (potassium rhodizonate). |
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[[Image:Mopitt first year carbon monoxide.jpg|thumb|240px|[[MOPITT]] 2000 global carbon monoxide ]] |
[[Image:Mopitt first year carbon monoxide.jpg|thumb|240px|[[MOPITT]] 2000 global carbon monoxide ]] |
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Carbon monoxide, though thought of as a pollutant today, has always been present in the atmosphere, chiefly as a product of [[volcano|volcanic activity]]. It occurs dissolved in molten volcanic rock at high [[pressure]]s in the earth's [[mantle (geology)|mantle]]. Carbon monoxide contents of volcanic gases vary from less than 0.01% to as much as 2% depending on the volcano. It also occurs naturally in [[bushfire]]s. Because natural sources of carbon monoxide are so variable from year to year, it is extremely difficult to accurately measure natural emissions of the gas. |
Carbon monoxide, though thought of as a pollutant today, has always been present in the atmosphere, chiefly as a product of [[volcano|volcanic activity]]. It occurs dissolved in molten volcanic rock at high [[pressure]]s in the earth's [[mantle (geology)|mantle]]. Carbon monoxide contents of volcanic gases vary from less than 0.01% to as much as 2% depending on the volcano. It also occurs naturally in [[bushfire]]s. Because natural sources of carbon monoxide are so variable from year to year, it is extremely difficult to accurately measure natural emissions of the gas. |
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Carbon monoxide has an indirect radiative forcing effect by elevating concentrations of [[methane]] and [[troposphere|tropospheric]] [[ozone]] through chemical reactions with other atmospheric constituents (e.g., the [[hydroxyl]] [[Radical (chemistry)|radical]], OH<sup>'''.'''</sup>) that would otherwise destroy them. Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized to [[carbon dioxide]]. Carbon monoxide concentrations are both short-lived in the atmosphere and spatially variable. |
Carbon monoxide has an indirect radiative forcing effect by elevating concentrations of [[methane]] and [[troposphere|tropospheric]] [[ozone]] through chemical reactions with other atmospheric constituents (e.g., the [[hydroxyl]] [[Radical (chemistry)|radical]], OH<sup>'''.'''</sup>) that would otherwise destroy them. Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized to [[carbon dioxide]]. Carbon monoxide concentrations are both short-lived in the atmosphere and spatially variable. |
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Carbon monoxide is used in [[modified atmosphere]] packaging systems in the US, mainly with fresh meat products such as beef and pork. The CO combines with [[myoglobin]] to form carboxymyoglobin, a bright cherry red pigment. Carboxymyoglobin is more stable than the oxygenated form of myoglobin, oxymyoglobin, which can become oxidized to the brown pigment, metmyoglobin. This stable red colour can persist much longer than in normally packaged meat, giving the appearance of freshness.<ref name="Meatsci1999_SORHEIM">{{cite journal | author=Sorheim, S, Nissena, H, Nesbakken, T | title=The storage life of beef and pork packaged in an atmosphere with low carbon monoxide and high carbon dioxide | journal=Journal of Meat Science | year=1999 | pages=157–64 | volume=52 | issue=2 | doi = 10.1016/S0309-1740(98)00163-6}}</ref> Typical levels of CO used are 0.4% to 0.5%. |
Carbon monoxide is used in [[modified atmosphere]] packaging systems in the US, mainly with fresh meat products such as beef and pork. The CO combines with [[myoglobin]] to form carboxymyoglobin, a bright cherry red pigment. Carboxymyoglobin is more stable than the oxygenated form of myoglobin, oxymyoglobin, which can become oxidized to the brown pigment, metmyoglobin. This stable red colour can persist much longer than in normally packaged meat, giving the appearance of freshness.<ref name="Meatsci1999_SORHEIM">{{cite journal | author=Sorheim, S, Nissena, H, Nesbakken, T | title=The storage life of beef and pork packaged in an atmosphere with low carbon monoxide and high carbon dioxide | journal=Journal of Meat Science | year=1999 | pages=157–64 | volume=52 | issue=2 | doi = 10.1016/S0309-1740(98)00163-6}}</ref> Typical levels of CO used are 0.4% to 0.5%. |
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The technology was first given [[generally recognized as safe]] status by the [[FDA]] in 2002 for use as a secondary packaging system. In 2004 the FDA approved CO as primary packaging method, declaring that CO does not mask spoilage odour.<ref name="Meatsci2005_eilert">{{cite journal | author=Eilert EJ | title=New packaging technologies for the 21st century | journal=Journal of Meat Science | year=2005 | pages=122–27 | volume=71 | issue=1 | doi = 10.1016/j.meatsci.2005.04.003}}</ref> Despite this ruling, the technology remains controversial in the US for fears that it is deceptive and masks spoilage.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.foodsafetymagazine.com/article.asp?id=644&sub=sub1 | title = Low-Oxygen Packaging with CO: A Study in Food Politics That Warrants Peer Review| accessdate = 2007-04-18}}</ref> |
The technology was first given [[generally recognized as safe]] status by the [[FDA]] in 2002 for use as a secondary packaging system. In 2004 the FDA approved CO as primary packaging method, declaring that CO does not mask spoilage odour.<ref name="Meatsci2005_eilert">{{cite journal | author=Eilert EJ | title=New packaging technologies for the 21st century | journal=Journal of Meat Science | year=2005 | pages=122–27 | volume=71 | issue=1 | doi = 10.1016/j.meatsci.2005.04.003}}</ref> Despite this ruling, the technology remains controversial in the US for fears that it is deceptive and masks spoilage.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.foodsafetymagazine.com/article.asp?id=644&sub=sub1 | title = Low-Oxygen Packaging with CO: A Study in Food Politics That Warrants Peer Review| accessdate = 2007-04-18}}</ref> |
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One reaction in the body produces CO. Carbon monoxide is produced naturally as a breakdown of [[heme]] (which is one of [[hemoglobin]] moieties), a substrate for the enzyme [[heme oxygenase]]. The enzymatic reaction results in breakdown of heme to CO, biliverdin and Fe<sup>3+</sup> radical. The endogenously produced CO may have important physiological roles in the body (eg as a [[neurotransmitter]] or a blood vessels relaxant). In addition CO regulates inflammatory reactions in a manner that prevents the development of several diseases such as atherosclerosis or severe malaria. |
One reaction in the body produces CO. Carbon monoxide is produced naturally as a breakdown of [[heme]] (which is one of [[hemoglobin]] moieties), a substrate for the enzyme [[heme oxygenase]]. The enzymatic reaction results in breakdown of heme to CO, biliverdin and Fe<sup>3+</sup> radical. The endogenously produced CO may have important physiological roles in the body (eg as a [[neurotransmitter]] or a blood vessels relaxant). In addition CO regulates inflammatory reactions in a manner that prevents the development of several diseases such as atherosclerosis or severe malaria. |
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CO is a nutrient for [[methanogen]]ic bacteria,<ref>{{cite journal | author = R. K. Thauer | title = Biochemistry of methanogenesis: a tribute to Marjory Stephenson. 1998 Marjory Stephenson Prize Lecture | year = 1998 | journal = [[Microbiology]] | volume = 144 | issue = 9 | pages = 2377–2406 | url = http://mic.sgmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/144/9/2377 | format = Free}}</ref> a building block for acetyl[[coenzyme A]]. This theme is the subject for the emerging field of [[bioorganometallic chemistry]]. In bacteria, CO is produced via the reduction of carbon dioxide via the enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, an Fe-Ni-S-containing protein.<ref>{{cite book | title = Bioorganometallics: Biomolecules, Labeling, Medicine | author = Jaouen, G., Ed. | publisher = Wiley-VCH | location = Weinheim | year = 2006 | isbn = 3-527-30990-X}}</ref> |
CO is a nutrient for [[methanogen]]ic bacteria,<ref>{{cite journal | author = R. K. Thauer | title = Biochemistry of methanogenesis: a tribute to Marjory Stephenson. 1998 Marjory Stephenson Prize Lecture | year = 1998 | journal = [[Microbiology]] | volume = 144 | issue = 9 | pages = 2377–2406 | url = http://mic.sgmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/144/9/2377 | format = Free}}</ref> a building block for acetyl[[coenzyme A]]. This theme is the subject for the emerging field of [[bioorganometallic chemistry]]. In bacteria, CO is produced via the reduction of carbon dioxide via the enzyme carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, an Fe-Ni-S-containing protein.<ref>{{cite book | title = Bioorganometallics: Biomolecules, Labeling, Medicine | author = Jaouen, G., Ed. | publisher = Wiley-VCH | location = Weinheim | year = 2006 | isbn = 3-527-30990-X}}</ref> |
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A haeme-based CO-sensor protein, CooA, is known.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Roberts, G. P.; Youn, H.; Kerby, R. L. | title = CO-Sensing Mechanisms | journal = Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews | year = 2004 | volume = 68 | pages = 453–473 | doi = 10.1128/MMBR.68.3.453-473.2004 | pmid = 15353565}}</ref> The scope of its biological role is still unclear, it is apparently part of a signaling pathway in bacteria and archaea, but its occurrence in mammals is not established. |
A haeme-based CO-sensor protein, CooA, is known.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Roberts, G. P.; Youn, H.; Kerby, R. L. | title = CO-Sensing Mechanisms | journal = Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews | year = 2004 | volume = 68 | pages = 453–473 | doi = 10.1128/MMBR.68.3.453-473.2004 | pmid = 15353565}}</ref> The scope of its biological role is still unclear, it is apparently part of a signaling pathway in bacteria and archaea, but its occurrence in mammals is not established. |
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==Toxicity== |
==Toxicity== |
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{{main|Carbon monoxide poisoning}} |
{{main|Carbon monoxide poisoning}} |
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Carbon monoxide is a significantly toxic gas and has no odor or color. It is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many countries.<ref name="Toxicology2002-omaye">{{cite journal | author=Omaye ST. | title=Metabolic modulation of carbon monoxide toxicity | journal=Toxicology | year=2002 | pages=139–50 | volume=180 | issue=2 | doi = 10.1016/S0300-483X(02)00387-6}}</ref> Exposures can lead to significant toxicity of the [[central nervous system]] and [[heart]]. Following poisoning, long-term [[sequela]]e often occur. Carbon monoxide can also have severe effects on the [[baby]] of a pregnant woman. Symptoms of mild poisoning include headaches and dizziness at concentrations less than 100 ppm. Concentrations as low as 667 ppm can cause up to 50% of the body's haemoglobin to be converted to [[Carboxyhaemoglobin|carboxy-haemoglobin (HbCO)]]. Carboxy-haemoglobin is quite stable but this change is reversible. Carboxy-haemoglobin is ineffective for delivering oxygen, resulting in some body parts not receiving oxygen needed. As a result, exposures of this level can be life-threatening. In the United States, [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration|OSHA]] limits long-term workplace exposure levels to 50 ppm. |
Carbon monoxide is a significantly toxic gas and has no odor or color. It is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many countries.<ref name="Toxicology2002-omaye">{{cite journal | author=Omaye ST. | title=Metabolic modulation of carbon monoxide toxicity | journal=Toxicology | year=2002 | pages=139–50 | volume=180 | issue=2 | doi = 10.1016/S0300-483X(02)00387-6}}</ref> Exposures can lead to significant toxicity of the [[central nervous system]] and [[heart]]. Following poisoning, long-term [[sequela]]e often occur. Carbon monoxide can also have severe effects on the [[baby]] of a pregnant woman. Symptoms of mild poisoning include headaches and dizziness at concentrations less than 100 ppm. Concentrations as low as 667 ppm can cause up to 50% of the body's haemoglobin to be converted to [[Carboxyhaemoglobin|carboxy-haemoglobin (HbCO)]]. Carboxy-haemoglobin is quite stable but this change is reversible. Carboxy-haemoglobin is ineffective for delivering oxygen, resulting in some body parts not receiving oxygen needed. As a result, exposures of this level can be life-threatening. In the United States, [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration|OSHA]] limits long-term workplace exposure levels to 50 ppm. |
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The mechanisms by which carbon monoxide produces toxic effects are not yet fully understood, but [[haemoglobin]], [[myoglobin]], and mitochondrial [[cytochrome oxidase]] are thought to be compromised. Treatment largely consists of administering 100% [[oxygen]] or [[hyperbaric oxygen]] therapy, although the optimum treatment remains controversial.<ref name="ToxicolRev2005-buckley">{{cite journal | author=Buckley NA, Isbister GK, Stokes B, Juurlink DN. | title=Hyperbaric oxygen for carbon monoxide poisoning : a systematic review and critical analysis of the evidence | journal=Toxicol Rev | year=2005 | pages=75–92 | volume=24 | issue=2 | pmid = 16180928 | url=http://toxicology.adisonline.com/pt/re/tox/abstract.00139709-200524020-00002.htm | format = Abstract}}</ref> Domestic carbon monoxide poisoning can be prevented by the use of household [[carbon monoxide detector]]s. |
The mechanisms by which carbon monoxide produces toxic effects are not yet fully understood, but [[haemoglobin]], [[myoglobin]], and mitochondrial [[cytochrome oxidase]] are thought to be compromised. Treatment largely consists of administering 100% [[oxygen]] or [[hyperbaric oxygen]] therapy, although the optimum treatment remains controversial.<ref name="ToxicolRev2005-buckley">{{cite journal | author=Buckley NA, Isbister GK, Stokes B, Juurlink DN. | title=Hyperbaric oxygen for carbon monoxide poisoning : a systematic review and critical analysis of the evidence | journal=Toxicol Rev | year=2005 | pages=75–92 | volume=24 | issue=2 | pmid = 16180928 | url=http://toxicology.adisonline.com/pt/re/tox/abstract.00139709-200524020-00002.htm | format = Abstract}}</ref> Domestic carbon monoxide poisoning can be prevented by the use of household [[carbon monoxide detector]]s. |
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* [http://www.carbonmonoxide.net Carbon Monoxide Network & Forum] |
* [http://www.carbonmonoxide.net Carbon Monoxide Network & Forum] |
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* [http://mattson.creighton.edu/CO/index.html Microscale Gas Chemistry Experiments with Carbon Monoxide] |
* [http://mattson.creighton.edu/CO/index.html Microscale Gas Chemistry Experiments with Carbon Monoxide] |
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* Reséarch on the therapeutic effects of CO [http://www.igc.gulbenkian.pt/research/unit/43 (Gulbenkian Science Institute)] |
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* [http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/cb/Volume/2007/11/Dont_blame_the_messenger.asp Instant insight] pedaran fisiologi karbon monoksida ti [[Royal Society of Chemistry]] |
* [http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/cb/Volume/2007/11/Dont_blame_the_messenger.asp Instant insight] pedaran fisiologi karbon monoksida ti [[Royal Society of Chemistry]] |
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Révisi nurutkeun 13 Pébruari 2017 02.59
Karbon monoksida (rumus kimiana CO) nyaéta sanyawa kimia anu diwangun ku hiji atom karbon nu meungkeut hiji atom oksigén ku dua beungkeut kovalén jeung hiji beungkeut kovalén koordinat. Ieu gas nu tanpa warna, tanpa bau, jeung tanpa rasa téh mangrupa sanyawa karbon anorganik. Ieu sanyawa dihasilkeun tina durukan parsial sanyawaan nu ngandung karbon, utamana dina mesin durukan-internal. Mun diduruk sampurna, ieu sanyawaan bakal jadi karbon dioksida. Najan toksisitasna matak bahya, CO penting pisan pikeun téhnologi modéren salaku prékursor rupa-rupa produk.
Produksi
Ku penting-pentingna, kiwari geus aya rupa-rupa cara ngahasilkeun karbon monoksida[1].
Gas produsén dibentuk ku cara ngaduruk karbon dina oksigén dina suhu anu luhur. Dina oven, udara diasupkeun kana tumpukan batu bara. Hasil antarana nu mangrupa CO2 ngimbangan karbon panas leuwihna sahingga jadi CO. Réaksi O2 jeung karbon nu ngahasilkeun CO katelahna kasatimbangan Boudouard. Dina suhu leuwih ti 800 °C, CO jadi produk dominan:
- O2 + 2 C → 2 CO
- ΔH = -221 kJ/mol
Rujukan
- ↑ Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
Tumbu kaluar
- [1]
- International Chemical Safety Card 0023
- National Pollutant Inventory - Carbon Monoxide
- NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
- CID 281 ti PubChem
- United States Environmental Protection Agency Carbon Monoxide page
- External MSDS data sheet
- Carbon Monoxide Kills Awareness Campaign Site
- Carbon Monoxide Purification Process
- Carbon Monoxide Hazards with Backpacking Stoves
- USFDA IMPORT BULLETIN 16B-95, May 1999
- FDA Agency Response Letter GRAS Notice No. GRN 000083
- Carbon Monoxide in Fresh Meat site
- Carbon Monoxide Network & Forum
- Microscale Gas Chemistry Experiments with Carbon Monoxide
- Reséarch on the therapeutic effects of CO (Gulbenkian Science Institute)
- Instant insight pedaran fisiologi karbon monoksida ti Royal Society of Chemistry
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