Témbongkeun sumber pikeun Baktéri

{{Taxobox
| color = lightgrey
| name = Bacterium
| image = E. coli Bacteria (7316101966).jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''[[Escherichia coli]]''
| domain = '''Bacteria'''
| subdivision_ranks = Subgrup
| subdivision = 
[[Actinobacteria]]<br />
[[Aquificae]]<br />
[[Bacteroidetes]]/[[Chlorobi]]<br />
[[Chlamydiae]]/[[Verrucomicrobia]]<br />
[[Chloroflexi]]<br />
[[Chrysiogenetes]]<br />
[[Cyanobacteria]]<br />
[[Deferribacteraceae|Deferribacteres]]<br />
[[Deinococcus-Thermus]]<br />
[[Dictyoglomi]]<br />
[[Fibrobacteres]]/[[Acidobacteria]]<br />
[[Firmicutes]]<br />
[[Fusobacteria]]<br />
[[Gemmatimonadetes]]<br />
[[Nitrospirae]]<br />
[[Planctomycetes]]<br />
[[Proteobacteria]]<br />
[[Spirochaete]]s<br />
[[Thermodesulfobacteria]]<br />
[[Thermomicrobia]]<br />
[[Thermotogae]]
}}
'''Baktéri''' nyaéta golongan panglobana di antara [[organisme]]. Istilah baktéri ('''bacteria''') geus macem-macem dipaké keur sakabéh [[prokariot]] atawa lolobana golongannana, atawa disebut ogé '''eubacteria''', gumantung kana pamikiran ngeunaan hubungannana. Di dieu, ''bacteria'' digunakeun hususna pikeun nunjuk kana ''eubacteria''.  Golongan gedé baktéri séjénna nyaéta [[Archaea]]. Studi ngeunaan baktéri disebut ''[[wikt:baktériologi|baktériologi]]'', bagian tina [[mikrobiologi]].

Baktéri nyaéta mahluk anu kacida lobana di antara sakabéh organisme. Baktéri aya di mana-mana, dina [[taneuh]], [[cai]], jeung mangrupa pasangan [[simbiosis]] pikeun mahluk hirup séjénna. Loba [[patogén]] anu mangrupa baktéri. lolobanana mibanda ukuran pangpanjangna ukur 0.5-5.0 [[1 E-6 m|μm]], sanajan baktéri gedé saperti ''[[Thiomargarita namibiensis]]'' jeung ''[[Epulopiscium fishelsoni]]'' bisa nambahan ukuran nepi ka 0.5&nbsp;mm oge.  Baktéri umumna miboga [[dinding sél]], saperti [[tutuwuhan]] jeung [[Sél(biologi)|sél]] [[fungi]], tapi ''dinding'' sél baktéri normalna dijieun tina [[peptidoglycan]] tur lain [[sélulose]] (saperti dina [[tutuwuhan]]) atawa [[sitin]] (saperti dina fungi), jeung henteu [[homologi (biologi)|homolog]] jeung ''dinding'' sél [[eukariot]]ik. Lolobana gerak ngagunakeun [[flagella]], anu béda strukturna dibandingkeun jeung flagella golongan séjén.

== Sajarah ==
Baktéri munggaran ditalungtik ku [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] dina taun 1674 ngagunakeun mikroskop lensa tunggal hasil rancangan anjeunna sorangan.  Ngaran ''bacterium'' diwanohkeun ku [[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg|Ehrenberg]] dina 1828, diturunkeun tina [[Basa Yunani]]  βακτηριον nu hartina "tongkat leutik".  Sabab susahna ngajelaskeun baktéri individual jeung pentingna pamanggih anjeunna pikeun widang tatamba, biokimia, jeung géokimia, sajarah [[baktériologi]] umumna dijelaskeun minangka sajarah [[mikrobiologi]].

== Struktur Sél ==
[[Gambar:Prokaryote cell diagram.svg|thumb|320px|left|Struktur sél [[prokariot]]]]
{{utama|Struktur Sél Baktéri}}

Minangka [[prokariot]] (organisme tanpa nukleus sél) sakabéh baktéri miboga struktur sél anu sederhana tanpa [[nukleus sél]] jeung [[organél]] saperti [[mitokondria]] jeung [[kloroplas]]. <!--Most bacteria are relatively small and possess distinctive cell and colony morphologies (shapes) as described below. The most important bacterial structural characteristic is the [[cell wall]]. Bacteria can be divided into two groups (Gram positive and Gram negative) based on differences in cell wall structure as revealed by [[Gram stain]]ing. Gram positive bacteria possess a cell wall containing a thick [[peptidoglycan]] (called Murein in older sources) layer and [[teichoic acid]]s while Gram negative bacteria have an outer, [[lipopolysaccharide]]-containing membrane and a thin [[peptidoglycan]] layer located in the periplasm (the region between the outer and cytoplasmic membranes). Many bacteria contain other extracellular structures such as [[flagella]] and [[fimbriae]] which are used for [[motility]] (movement), attachment, and [[conjugation]] respectively. Some bacteria also contain capsules or [[slime layer]]s that also facilitate bacterial attachment to surfaces and [[biofilm]] formation. Bacteria contain relatively few intracellular structures compared to [[eukaryote]]s but do contain a tightly supercoiled [[chromosome]], [[ribosome]]s, and several other species-specific structures such as intracellular membranes, nutrient storage structures, gas vesicles, and [[magnetosome]]s. Some bacteria are capable of forming [[endospore]]s which allows them to survive extreme environmental and chemical stresses. This property is restricted to specific Gram positive organisms such as ''[[Bacillus]]'' and ''[[Clostridium]]''.

==Métabolisme==
''Main article: [[Metabolisme Microbial]]''

In contrast to higher organisms, bacteria exhibit an extremely wide variety of metabolic types. In fact, it is widely accepted that [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] metabolism is largely a derivative of bacterial metabolism with [[mitochondria]] having descended from a lineage within the [[Proteobacteria|α-Proteobacteria]] and [[chloroplast]]s from the [[Cyanobacteria]] by ancient [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic]] events. Bacterial metabolism can be divided broadly on the basis of the kind of energy used for growth, [[electron donor]]s and [[electron acceptor]]s and by the source of carbon used. Most bacteria are [[heterotroph]]ic; using [[organic compound|organic carbon]] compounds as both carbon and energy sources. In [[aerobe|aerobic]] organisms, [[oxygen]] is used as the [[terminal electron acceptor]]. In [[anaerobe|anaerobic]] organisms other inorganic compounds, such as [[nitrate]], [[sulfate]] or [[carbon dioxide]] as [[terminal electron acceptor]]s leading to the environmentally important processes of [[denitrification]], sulfate reduction and [[acetogenesis]], respectively. Non-respiratory anaerobes use [[fermentation]] to generate energy and reducing power, secreting metabolic by-products (such as [[ethanol]] in brewing) as waste. [[Facultative anaerobe]]s can switch between [[fermentation]] and different [[terminal electron acceptor]]s depending on the environmental conditions in which they find themselves. As an alternative to [[heterotroph]]y many bacteria are [[autotrophic]], fixing [[carbon dioxide]] into cell mass. Energy metabolism of bacteria is either based on [[phototroph]]y or [[chemotroph]]y, i. e. the use of either light or exergonic chemical reactions for fueling life processes. [[Lithotroph]]ic bacteria use inorganic [[electron donor]]s for respiration ([[chemolthotroph]]s) or biosynthesis and [[carbon dioxide]] fixation ([[photolithotroph]]s), opposed by [[organotrophs]] which need organic compounds as electron donors for biosynthetic reactions (and mostly as well as carbon sources). Common inorganic [[electron donor]]s are [[hydrogen]], [[ammonia]] (leading to [[nitrification]]), [[ferrous iron|iron]] and several reduced [[sulfur]] compounds. In both [[aerobe|aerobic]] [[phototroph]]y and [[chemolithotroph]]y [[oxygen]] is used as a [[terminal electron acceptor]], while under [[anaerobe|anaerobic]] conditions inorganic compounds (see above) are used instead. Most [[photolithotroph]]ic and [[chemolithotroph]]ic organisms are [[autotroph]]ic, meaning that they obtain cellular carbon by fixation of [[carbon dioxide]], whereas [[photoorganotroph]]ic and [[chemoorganotroph]]ic organisms are [[heterotrophic]]. In addition to carbon, some organisms also fix [[nitrogen]] gas ([[nitrogen fixation]]). This environmentally important trait can be found in bacteria of nearly all the metabolic types listed above but is not universal. The distribution of metabolic traits within a group of organisms has traditionally been used to define their taxonomy, although these traits often do not correspond with genetic techniques (see groups and identification below).

==Tuwuh jeung Réproduksi==
Sakabéh baktéri baranahan ku cara [[réproduksi aséksual]] (''binary fission'') nu hasilna mangrupa [[''pembagian'' sél]]. Two identical [[Cloning|clone]] '''daughter cells''' are produced. Some bacteria, while still reproducing asexually, form more complex reproductive structures that facilitate the dispersal of the newly-formed daughter cells. Examples include fruiting body formation by ''[[Myxococcus]]'' and arial hyphae formation by ''[[Streptomyces]]''.

[[Image:Agar_plate_with_colonies.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Lapisan ager padet nu ngandung koloni baktéri]]
		
In the laboratory, bacteria are usually grown using two methods, solid and liquid. Solid growth media such as [[agar plates]] are used to isolate pure cultures of a bacterial strain. When quantitation of growth or large volumes of cells are required liquid growth media are generally used. Growth in liquid media, with stirring, most often occurs as an even cell suspension making the cultures easier to divide and transfer compared to solid media, although the isolation of individual cells from liquid media is extremely difficult. In both liquid and solid media there exist a finite amount of nutrients, which allows for the study of the [[bacterial growth|bacterial cell cycle]]. These limitations can be avoided by the use of a [[chemostat]], which maintains a bacterial culture under steady-state conditions by the continuous addition of nutrients and the removal of waste products and cells. Large [[chemostat]]s are often used for industrial-scale microbial processes.

Most techniques commonly used to grow bacteria are designed to optimise the amount of cells produced, the amount of time needed to produce them, and the cost to produce them. In a bacterium's natural environment nutrients are limited, meaning that bacteria cannot continue to reproduce indefinitely. This constant limitation of nutrients has led the evolution of many different growth strategies in different types of organisms (see [[R/K selection theory]]). Some possess the ability to grow extremely rapidly when nutrients become available, such as the formation of algal (and cyanobacterial) blooms that often occur in lakes during the summer. Other organisms have devised more specialized strategies to make them more successful in a harsh environment, such as the production of [[antibiotics]] by ''[[Streptomyces]]''; often at the expense of a slower growth rate. In a natural environment, many organisms live in communities (e.g. [[biofilm]]s) which may allow for increased supply of nutrients and protection of environmental stresses. Often these relationships are essential for growth of a particular organism or group of organisms ([[syntrophy]]). These evolutionary tactics to overcome nutrient limitation must be accounted for in an industrial/laboratory bacterial growth experiment. For instance bacteria that tend to agglutinate may need more vigorous stirring to break apart any large bacterial masses. The main growth attribute that must be understood for controlled growth is that bacteria have defined growth phases.

A controlled bacterial growth will follow three distinct phases. Nearly all cultures start from taking a relatively old stock of bacteria and diluting them in to fresh media; these cells need to adapt to the nutrient rich environment. The first phase of growth is the [[lag phase]]. The lag phase is a period of slow growth. The slow growth is most often attributed the need for cells to adapt to fast growth. The lag phase has high biosynthesis rates; enzymes needed to metabolise a variety of substrates are produced. The second phase of growth is the [[logarithmic phase]] (log phase), also known as the exponential phase. The log phase is marked by rapid exponential growth. The rate at which cells grow during this phase is known as the ''growth rate'' (''k''). The time it takes the cells to double during the log phase is known as the ''generation time'' (''g''). During the log phase, nutrients are metabolised at maximum speed until they are all gone. The final phase of growth is the [[stationary phase]]. This phase of growth is caused by depleted nutrients. The cells begin to shut down their metabolic activity, as well as break-down their own non-essential proteins. The stationary phase is a transition from rapid growth to dormancy. The cells turn off all none essential functions, such as [[bacterial conjugation]].

==Variasi Genetik==

Bacteria, as asexual organisms, inherit an identical copy of their parent's genes (i.e. are [[clone|clonal]]). All bacteria, however, have the ability to evolve and change their genetic material, either through [[mutation]] or [[genetic recombination]]. [[Mutation]] occurs as a result of errors made during the replication of a gene and is most often gradual. It occurs naturally and as a result of the presence of [[mutagen]]s. Some bacteria can increase the rate of mutation during DNA replication as a response to stress.

Asexual reproduction does not afford an organism many opportunities to evolve its genome. Certain types of bacteria are also capable of exchanging genetic information through [[bacterial conjugation]]. In conjugation, one bacterium transfers genetic material to another through a mating bridge. The genetic material transferred may be either [[chromosome|chromosomal]] or from a [[plasmid]]. Conjugation increases the genetic variability of bacterial populations and facilitates the emergences of antibiotic resistance. This is often thought of as a primitive form of sexual reproduction; however, since gametes (n) are not uniting to form a zygote (2n), this cannot be considered sexual reproduction. The ability to transfer DNA is not ubiquitous in the bacterial kingdom, so all bacteria also rely on none transfer methods to diversify their DNA. The most abundant genetic changes in bacterial genomes come from [[mutation|random mutation]]. One of the most common ways that bacteria undergo genetic recombination is [[transduction]]. In the process of transduction, a [[bacteriophage|virus]] alters the [[DNA]] of a bacterium by injecting its own into the [[cell]]. The bacteria's chromosome can then be altered by the viral DNA, if it is able to survive the reproduction of the virus. If the genetic material of the virus was corrupted, not allowing the cell to create the virus parts, the bacteria would then most likely survive to reproduce and pass the altered chromosome to a daughter cell. Many bacteria can also take-up exogenous environmental DNA; this method may be a prime method for antibiotic resistance to be passed between different species, even different genera.

Because of their ability to quickly grow and the relative ease with which they can be manipulated, bacteria have historically been the workhorses for the fields of [[molecular biology]], [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]]. By making mutations in bacteria and examining the resulting phenotypes, scientists have been able to determine the function of many different genes and enzymes. Lessons learned from bacteria can then be applied to more complex organisms which are often more difficult to study.

== Gerakan ==
[[image:flagella.png|thumb|100px|left|
A-Monotrichous;
B-Lophotrichous; 
C-Amphitrichous;
D-Peritrichous;]]

''Motile'' bacteria can move about, using [[flagellum|flagella]], [[bacterial gliding]], or changes of buoyancy. A unique group of bacteria, the [[spirochaete]]s, have structures similar to flagella, called [[axial filament]]s, between two membranes in the periplasmic space. They have a distinctive [[helix|helical]] body that twists about as it moves.

Bacterial flagella are arranged in many different ways. Bacteria can have a single polar flagellum at one end of a cell, clusters of many flagella at one end or flagella scattered all over the cell, as with ''[[peritrichous]]''. Many bacteria (such as ''E.coli'') have two distinct modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling. The tumbling allows them to reorient and introduces an important element of [[random]]ness in their forward movement. (See external links below for link to videos.)

Motile bacteria are attracted or repelled by certain [[stimulus (physiology)|stimuli]], behaviors called ''taxes'' -  for instance, [[chemotaxis]], [[phototaxis]], [[mechanotaxis]], and [[magnetotaxis]].  In one peculiar group, the [[myxobacteria]], individual bacteria attract to form swarms and may differentiate to form fruiting bodies. The [[myxobacteria]] move only when on solid surfaces, unlike ''E. coli'' which is motile in liquid or solid media.

==Golongan jeung Idéntifikasi==
[[Image:Bacterial morphology diagram.svg|right|thumb|300px|Baktéri dina macem-macem ukuran]]

Historically, bacteria as originally studied by [[botany|botanists]] were classified in the same way as plants, that is, mainly by shape. Bacteria come in a variety of different cell morphologies (shapes), including bacillus (rod-shape), [[coccus]] (spherical), spirillum (helical), and vibrio (curved bacillus). However, because of their small size bacteria are relatively uniform in shape and therefore classification based on morphology was unsuccessful. The first formal classification scheme was developed following the development of the [[Gram stain]] by [[Hans Christian Gram]] which separates bacteria based on the structural characteristics of their cell walls. This scheme included:
* ''Gracilicutes'' - Gram negative staining bacteria with a second cell membrane
* ''Firmicutes'' - Gram positive staining bacteria with a thick [[peptidoglycan]] wall
* ''Mollicutes'' - Gram negative staining bacteria with no cell wall or second membrane 
* ''Mendosicutes'' - atypically staining strains now known to belong to the [[Archaea]]
Further developments (essentially) based on this scheme included comparisons of bacteria based on differences in cellular metabolism as determined by a wide variety of specific tests. Bacteria were also classified based on differences in cellular chemical compounds such as [[fatty acid]]s, pigments, and [[quinone]]s for example. While these schemes allowed for the differentiation between bacterial strains, it was unclear whether these differences represented variation between distinct species or between strains of the same species. It was not until the utilization of genome-based techniques such as %[[guanine]]+[[cytosine]] [[GC-content|ratio]] determination, genome-genome hybridization and gene sequencing (in particular the [[rDNA|rRNA gene]]) that microbial taxonomy developed (or at least is developing) into a stable, accurate classification system. It should be noted, however, that due to the existence numerous historical classification schemes and our current poor understanding of microbial diversity, bacterial taxonomy remains a changing and expanding field.

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== Benefits and dangers ==
Bacteria are both harmful and useful to the [[natural environment|environment]] and [[animal]]s, including [[human]]s. The role of bacteria in disease and infection is important. Some bacteria act as [[pathogen]]s and cause [[tetanus]], [[typhoid fever]], [[pneumonia]], [[syphilis]], [[cholera]],  [[food-borne illness]], [[leprosy]], and [[tuberculosis]](TB). [[Sepsis]], a systemic infectious syndrome characterized by shock and massive vasodilation, or localized infection, can be caused by bacteria such as ''[[Streptococcus]]'', ''[[Staphylococcus]]'', or many gram-negative bacteria.  Some bacterial infections can spread throughout the host's body and become ''systemic''. In [[plant]]s, bacteria cause [[leaf spot]], [[fireblight]], and [[wilting|wilts]]. The mode of infection includes contact, air, food, water, and [[insect-borne]] microorganisms. The hosts infected with the pathogens may be treated with [[antibiotic]]s, which can be classified as [[bacteriocide|bacteriocidal]] and [[bacteriostatic]], which at concentrations that can be reached in bodily fluids either kill bacteria or hamper their growth, respectively. [[Antiseptic]] measures may be taken to prevent infection by bacteria, for example, by swabbing skin with alcohol prior to piercing the skin with the needle of a syringe. [[Sterilization (microbiology)|Sterilization]] of surgical and dental instruments is done to make them ''sterile'' or pathogen-free to prevent contamination and infection by bacteria. ''Sanitizers'' and [[disinfectants]] are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens to prevent contamination and risk of infection.

In soil, microorganisms which reside in the [[rhizosphere]] (a zone that includes the root surface and the soil that adheres to the root after gentle shaking) help in the transformation of molecular dinitrogen gas as their source of nitrogen, converting it to nitrogenous compounds in a process known as [[nitrogen fixation]]. This serves to provide an easily absorbable form of nitrogen for many plants, which cannot fix nitrogen themselves. Many other bacteria are found as [[symbiont]]s [[Bacteria in the human body|in humans]] and other organisms. For example, the presence of the [[gut flora]] in the large intestine can help prevent the growth of potentially harmful microbes.

The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable. Highly specialized groups of microorganisms play important roles in the [[mineralization]] of specific classes of organic compounds.  For example, the decomposition of [[cellulose]], which is one of the most abundant constituents of plant tissues, is mainly brought about by aerobic bacteria that belong to the genus ''[[Cytophaga]]''. This ability has also been utilized by humans in industry, waste processing, and [[bioremediation]]. Bacteria capable of digesting the [[hydrocarbons]] in [[petroleum]] are often used to clean up [[oil spill]]s. Some beaches in [[Prince William Sound]] were fertilized in an attempt to facilitate the growth of such bacteria after the infamous 1989 [[Exxon Valdez oil spill]].  These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil.

Bacteria, often in combination with [[yeast]]s and [[mold]]s, are used in the preparation of [[fermentation|fermented]] foods such as [[cheese]], [[pickle]]s, [[soy sauce]], [[sauerkraut]], [[vinegar]], [[wine]], and [[yogurt]]. Using [[biotechnology]] techniques, bacteria can be [[bioengineer]]ed for the production of therapeutic drugs, such as [[insulin]], or for the [[bioremediation]] of [[toxic waste]]s.

Friendly bacteria: a common reference to those bacteria that offer some benefit to human hosts, such as ''Lactobacillus'' species, which convert milk protein to lactic acid in the gut. The presence of such bacterial colonies also inhibits the growth of potentially pathogenic bacteria. Other bacteria that are helpful inside the body are many strains of E. coli, which is harmless and provides humans with Vitamin K.

==Tempo ogé== 
*[[Bacterial growth]]
*[[Bacteriocin]]
*[[Economic importance of bacteria]]
*[[Magnetotactic bacteria]]
*[[Microorganism]]
*[[Nanobacterium]]
*[[Transgenic bacteria]]

==Sumber==
* Some text in this entry was merged with the ''[[Nupedia]]'' article entitled ''Bacteria'', written by Nagina Parmar; reviewed and approved by the Biology group (editor: Gaytha Langlois, lead reviewer: Gaytha Langlois, lead copyeditors: Ruth Ifcher and Jan Hogle)
* {{NCBI-scienceprimer}}-->

== Bacaan salajengna ==
* Alcamo, I. Edward. ''Fundamentals of Microbiology''. 5th ed.  Menlo Park, California: Benjamin Cumming, 1997.
* Atlas, Ronald M. ''Principles of Microbiology''.  St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby, 1995.
* Holt, John.G. Bergey's ''Manual of Determinative Bacteriology''. 9th ed. Baltimore, Maryland: Williams and Wilkins, 1994.
* {{cite journal | author=Hugenholtz P, Goebel BM, Pace NR | title=Impact of culture-independent studies on the emerging phylogenetic view of bacterial diversity | journal=J Bacteriol | year=1998 | pages=4765-74 | volume=180 | issue=18 | id=PMID 9733676 | url=http://jb.asm.org/cgi/content/full/180/18/4765?view=full&pmid=9733676}}
* {{cite journal | author=Koshland, Daniel E., Jr. | title=A Response Regulator Model in a Simple Sensory System | journal=Science | year=1977 | volume=196 | pages=1055-1063 | id=PMID 870969}}
* Stanier, R.Y., J. L. Ingraham, M. L. Wheelis, and P. R. Painter. ''General Microbiology''. 5th ed.  Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1986.

== Tumbu Luar ==
* [http://www.dsmz.de/bactnom/bactname.htm Bacterial Nomenclature Up-To-Date from DSMZ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929083605/http://www3.dsmz.de/bactnom/bactname.htm |date=2007-09-29 }}
* [http://www.zytologie-online.net/bakterien.php Bacterial Growth and Cell Wall (Ger)]
* [http://www.indiana.edu/~pietsch/microminds.html Microminds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060706205152/http://www.indiana.edu/~pietsch/microminds.html |date=2006-07-06 }}
* [http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc99/4_17_99/fob5.htm The largest bacteria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121211094146/http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc99/4_17_99/fob5.htm |date=2012-12-11 }}
* [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Eubacteria&contgroup=Life_on_Earth Tree of Life] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021015145/http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Eubacteria&contgroup=Life_on_Earth |date=2014-10-21 }}
* [http://www.rowland.harvard.edu/labs/bacteria/index_movies.html Videos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105182817/http://www.rowland.harvard.edu/labs/bacteria/index_movies.html |date=2015-11-05 }} of bacteria swimming and tumbling, use of optical tweezers and other fine vidéos.
* [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_bacteria.html Planet of the Bacteria by Stephen Jay Gould]
* [http://www.bact.wisc.edu/Bact303/MajorGroupsOfProkaryotes Major Groups of Prokaryotes]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20021118194416/http://www.eff.org/Misc/Publications/Bruce_Sterling/FSF_columns/fsf.15 Bitter Resistance by Bruce Sterling]
* [http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/ On-line text book on bacteriology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913123627/http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/ |date=2008-09-13 }}

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