Daptar gunung api di Indonésia
Kaca ieu mangrupa daptar gunung seuneuan di Indonésia. Géografi Indonésia didominasi ku gunung seuneuan nu kawangun alatan zona subduksi antara lempengan Érasia jeung lempengan Indo-Australia. Aya sababaraha gunung seuneuan anu kasohor bituna, contona, Rakata nu ngabalukarkeun pangaruh global taun 1883,[1] Dano Toba kasohor ku bitu supervolcanona nu diperkirakeun kajadian 74.000 taun Saméméh Kiwari nu ngabalukarkeun genep taun usum tiis gunung seuneuan,[2] sarta Gunung Tambora nu karekam dina sajarah taun 1815 bituna kacida ngaruksakna.[3]
Gunung seuneuan di Indonésia mangrupa bagéan tina Cingcin Seuneu Pasifik (Pacific Ring of Fire). 150 entri dina daptar ieu digolongkeun kana genep wewengkon regional, opat di antarana mangrupa gunung seuneuan dina sistem kanal Cekungan Sunda. Dua golongan sesana mangrupa gunung seuneuan Halmahera, kaasup sabudeureun pulo gunung seuneuan, sarta gunung seuneuan di Sulawesi jeung Pulo Sangihe. Golongan pangpandeurina nyaéta dina hiji cekungan vulkanik nu ngahiji jeung gunung seuneuan Pilipina.
Gunung seuneuan anu pangaktipna nyaéta Kelut jeung Merapi di pulo Jawa anu geus ngabalukarkeun leungitna rebuan nyawa di sabudeureunnan. Saprak taun 1000, Kelut geus bitu leuwih ti 30 kali, bitu pangrongkahna kajadian dina skala 5 Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI),[4] sedengkeun Merapi geus bitu leuwih ti 80 kali.[5] The International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior geus nyebutkeun Merapi minangka Decade Volcano saprak 1995 alatan aktivitas letusanna anu remen.
Lingkup
[édit | édit sumber]Acan aya hiji definisi anu baku ngeunaan gunung seuneuan. Hiji gunung bisa ditetepkeun minangka seuneuan tina ayana kawah, volcanic edificies atawa medan vulkanik. Bagian jero rohangan gunung seuneuan purba bisa waé urug atawa kakikis, antukna nyiptakeun kamar-kamar magma anyar minangka gunung-gunung seuneuan anyar. Loba gunung seuneuan anu kiwari aktif mucunghul minangka anak congcot tina sisi kawah atawa tengah kawah. Salah sahiji conto nyaéta gunung Tangkubanparahu anu mucunghul dina kaldera gunung Sunda. Sababaraha congcot vulkanik dikolompokkeun jadi hiji ngaran, contona kompleks kaldera Tenger, sanajan padumuk lokal geus méré ngaran kana tiap kawahna. Status gunung seuneuan, arek aktif atawa henteu aktif henteu bisa didefinisikeun kalayan pasti. Ciri sahiji gunung minangka seuneuan ditetepkeun ku cutatan sajarahna, pananggalan radiocarbon, atawa aktivitas géotermalna.
Di handap ieu aya daftar gunung seuneuan anu dicokot tina sumber utama buku "Volcanoes of the World", anu dikumpulkeun ku dua ahli gunung seuneu Tom Simkin jeung Lee Siebert,[a] anu eusina mangrupa daftar gunung seuneu aktif dina sajero 10,000 taun ka tukang (Holocene).[6] Husus keur Indonésia, Simkin jeung Siebert ngagunakeun sahiji katalog ngeunaan gunung seuneu tina runtuyan publikasi International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior.[b] Daftar Simkin jeung Siebert mangrupa daftar gunung seuneuan di Indonésia anu paling lengkep, tapi katalitian cutatanna béda-béda ti hiji wilayah jeung wilayah lianna dina hal jumlah kajadian jeung rongkahna letusan ka dieunakeun.
Kolompok geografis
[édit | édit sumber]Sumatra
[édit | édit sumber]Tanah Sumatera sabagian gedé dipinuhan ku rangkéan gunung atawa pagunungan anu disebut Bukit Barisan. Pagunungan éta ngawengku ampir 1,700 km (1,050 mi) ti kalér nunjang ngidul. Pagunungan éta kawangun akibat gerak lémpeéng téktonik Australia.[7] Lémpéng kasebut maju 5,5 cm/taun nu ngabalukarkeun lini anu rongkah di sisi beulah kulon Sumatera kaasup lini Sumatera-Andaman dina taun 2004.[8][9] Gerak téktonik lain waé ngabalukarkeun lini, tapi ogé ngwangun kamar magma dina handapeun pulo.[7]
Ti 35 gunung seuneu aktif, ngan aya hiji anu misah ti daratan utama Sumatera, nyaéta gunung Weh. Pisahna ieu gunung disababkeun ku letusan gedé anu ngakibatkeun kawangunna daratan anu handap antukna kaeusi ku cai laut dina mangsa Pleistocene. Gunung seuneuan anu paling gedé di Sumatera nyaéta gunung Toba, anu kaasup gunung seuneuan super, di tengah dano Toba anu boga ukuran 100 km (62 miles) × 30 km (19 miles), anu kawangun saenggeus runtuhna kaldéra (kira-kira 74,000 taun Samemeh Kiwari).[2] Letusanna ditaksir nepi ka level dalapan dina skala VEI, level pangluhurna anu mungkin dina éta skala. Puncak anu paling luhur dina éta pagunungan nyaéta Gunung Kerinci anu luhurna 3,800 m (12,467 ft).
| Ngaran | Wangun | Jangkung | Bitu pangpandeurina (VEI) | Lokasi di bumi | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (m) | (ft) | ||||
| Wéh | stratovolcano | 617 | 2,024 | Pleistocene | |
| Seulawah Agam | stratovolcano | 1,810 | 5,938 | 1839 (2) | |
| Peuet Sague | complex volcano | 2,801 | 9,190 | 25 Desember 2000 (2) | |
| Geureudong | stratovolcano | 2,885 | 9,465 | 1937 | |
| Kembar | shield volcano | 2,245 | 7,365 | Pleistocene | |
| Sibayak | stratovolcano | 2,212 | 7,257 | 1881 | |
| Sinabung | stratovolcano | 2,460 | 8,071 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Toba | supervolcano | 2,157 | 7,077 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Helatoba-Tarutung | fumarole field | 1,100 | 3,609 | Pleistocene | |
| Imun | teu kanyahoan | 1,505 | 4,938 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Sibualbuali | stratovolcano | 1,819 | 5,968 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Lubukraya | stratovolcano | 1,862 | 6,109 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Sorikmarapi | stratovolcano | 2,145 | 7,037 | 1986 (1) | |
| Talakmau | complex volcano | 2,919 | 9,577 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Sarik-Gajah | volcanic cone | teu kanyahoan | teu kanyahoan | teu kanyahoan | |
| Marapi | complex volcano | 2,891 | 9,485 | 5 Agustus 2004 (2) | |
| Tandikat | stratovolcano | 2,438 | 7 999 | 1924 (1) | |
| Talang | stratovolcano | 2,597 | 8,520 | 12 April 2005 (2) | |
| Kerinci | stratovolcano | 3,800 | 12,467 | 22 Juni 2004 (2) | |
| Hutapanjang | stratovolcano | 2,021 | 6,631 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Sumbing | stratovolcano | 2,507 | 8,225 | 23 Mei 1921 (2) | |
| Kunyit | stratovolcano | 2,151 | 7,057 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Pendan | teu kanyahoan | teu kanyahoan | teu kanyahoan | teu kanyahoan | |
| Belirang-Beriti | compound | 1,958 | 6,424 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Bukit Daun | stratovolcano | 2,467 | 8,094 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Kaba | stratovolcano | 1,952 | 6,404 | 22 Agustus 2000 (1) | |
| Dempo | stratovolcano | 3,173 | 10,410 | Oktober 1994 (1) | |
| Patah | teu kanyahoan | 2,817 | 9,242 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Bukit Lumut Balai | stratovolcano | 2,055 | 6,742 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Besar | stratovolcano | 1,899 | 6,230 | April 1940 (1) | |
| Ranau | caldera | 1,881 | 6,171 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Sekincau Belirang | caldera | 1,719 | 5,640 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Suoh | caldera | 1,000 | 3,281 | 10 Juli 1933 (4) | |
| Hulubelu | caldera | 1,040 | 3,412 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Rajabasa | stratovolcano | 1,281 | 4,202 | teu kanyahoan | |
Selat Sunda jeung Jawa
[édit | édit sumber]Selat Sunda misahkeun pulo Sumatera jeung pulo Jawa ku pulo seuneun Rakata. Rakata bitu rongkah dina taun 1883, ngaruksak dua per tilu éta pulo sarta ninggalkeun hijikaldera gedé handapeun beungeut laut. Letusan cataclysmic ieu kadenge nepi ka pulo Rodrigues deukeut Mauritius (kira-kira 3000 mile atawa 4800 km jauhna).[1] Hiji congcot parasit anyar, anu disebut Anak Rakata, mucunghul tina jero laut dina puseur kaldera dina taun 1930.[11] Pulo-pulo Rakata lainna anu dihasilekun tina letusan taun 1883 dibéré ngaran Sertung, Panjang jeung Rakata. Jawa mangrupa pulo nu relatif leutik lamun dibandingkeun jeung Sumatra mah, tapi boga konsentrasi gunung seuneuan katip nu leuwih loba. Aya 45 gunung seuneuan aktip di Pulo Jawa, henteu kaasup 20 kawah jeung congcot leutik di komplék vulkanik Diéng katut congcot ngora di komplék kaldéra Tengger. Sababaraha gunung seuneuan digolongkeun babarengan dina daptar di handap alatan perenahna nu padeudeukeut. Gunung Merapi, Semeru jeung Kelud mangrupa gunung seuneuan pangaktipna di Jawa. Gunung Semeru terus-terusan bitu ti taun 1967.[12] Gunung Merapi disebut salah sahiji Decade Volcanoes ti taun 1995.[13] Ijen boga situ kaldera nu boga rupa-rupa kelir nu unik mangrupa reservoir alam nu kacida asamna (pH<0.3).[14] Aya tambang walirang di Ijen, panambang ngumpulkeun batu walirang nua sam maké leungeun.
Kapuloan Sunda Leutik
[édit | édit sumber]Kapuloan Sunda Leutik nyaéta hiji kapuloan nu ti kulon tepi ka wetanna, ngawengku pulo-pulo Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba jeung Timor; sakabéhna aya dina tungtung landasan buana Australia.
Gunung seuneuan di wewengkon ieu kawangun ku ayana kulit samudra sarta gerakan landasannana sorangan.[18] Sababaraha gunung seuneuan sacara lengkep ngawangun pulo, upamana, pulo Sangeang Api. Gunung Tambora, di Pulo Sumbawa, bitu tanggal 5 April 1815, kalayan skala 7 VEI sarta dianggep bitu pangngaruksakna dina sajarah nu kacatet.[3]
Laut Banda
[édit | édit sumber]Laut Banda di kiduleun Kapuloan Maluku ngawengku kelompok kapuloan nu leutik. Tilu lempengan tektonik utama di sahandapeun laut, lempengan Érasia, Pasifik jeung Indo-Australia, geus kawangun ti mangsa Mesozoik mula.[20] Gunung seuneuan di Laut Banda Séa utamana mangrupa pulo, tapi sababaraha di antarana mangrupa gunung seuneuan di jeroeun sagara.
| Name | Shape | Elevation | Last eruption (VEI) | Géolocation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (m) | (ft) | ||||
| Emperor of China | submarine | -2,850 | -9,350 | teu katangen | |
| Nieuwerkerk | submarine | -2,285 | -7,500 | teu katangen | |
| Gunungapi Wetar | stratovolcano | 282 | 925 | 1699 (3) | |
| Wurlali | stratovolcano | 868 | 2,850 | 3 Juni 1892 (2) | |
| Teon | stratovolcano | 655 | 2,150 | 3 Juni 1904 (2) | |
| Nila | stratovolcano | 781 | 2,500 | 7 Mei 1968 (1) | |
| Serua | stratovolcano | 641 | 2,100 | 18 September 1921 (2) | |
| Manuk | stratovolcano | 282 | 925 | teu katangen | |
| Banda Api | caldera | 640 | 2,100 | 9 Mei 1988 (3) | |
Sulawesi jeung Kapuloan Sangihe
[édit | édit sumber]Opat bojong ngadominasi wangun pulo Sulawesi. Bagéan tengah mangrupa wewenkon pagunungan, tapi lolobananana henteu lain gunung seuneuan (non-vulkanik). Gunung seuneuan aktip pinanggih di bojong kaler sarta terus manjang tepi ka kalereun Kapuloan Sangihe. Kapuloan Sangihe nandaan wates jeung Pilipina.
| Ngaran | Wangun | Jangkung | Bitu pangpandeurina (VEI) | Lokasi di bumi | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (m) | (ft) | ||||
| Colo | stratovolcano | 507 | 1,663 | 18 Juli 1983 (4) | |
| Ambang | complex volcano | 1,795 | 5,890 | 1845 ± 5 yéars | |
| Soputan | stratovolcano | 1,784 | 5,853 | 26 Desember 2006 (1) | |
| Sempu | kaldera | 1,549 | 5,082 | teu katangén | |
| Tondano | kaldera | 1,202 | 3,944 | teu katangén | |
| Lokon-Empung | stratovolcano | 1,580 | 5,184 | 23 September 2003 (3) | |
| Mahawu | stratovolcano | 1,324 | 4,344 | 16 Nopember 1977 (0) | |
| Klabat | stratovolcano | 1,995 | 6,545 | teu katangén | |
| Tongkoko | stratovolcano | 1,149 | 3,770 | 1880 (1) | |
| Ruang | stratovolcano | 725 | 2,379 | 25 September 2002 (4) | |
| Karangetang | stratovolcano | 1,784 | 5,853 | 2 April 2005 (2) | |
| Banua Wuhu | submarine | -5 | -16.5 | 18 Juli 1919 (3) | |
| Awu | stratovolcano | 1,320 | 4,331 | 2 Juni 2004 (2) | |
| Jero laut 1922 | jero laut | -5,000 | -16,404 | teu katangén | |
Halmahera
[édit | édit sumber]Pulo Halmahera di béh kaler Kapuloan Maluku diwangun ku gerakan tilu lempengan tektonik nu ngahasilkeun dua jangkah pagunungan nu pasilang-silang, nu ngawangun opat semenanjung karangan nu dipisahkeun ku tilu teluk jero. Hiji volcanic arc manjang ti kaler ka kidul di sisi béh kulon Halmahera, nu sababaraha di antarana mangrupa kapuloan vulkanik, contona, Gamalama jeung Tidore. Ngaran pulo nu aya Gamalamaan nyaéta Ternate nu geus jadi puseur perdagangan rempah-rempah ti jaman Karajaan Portugis mula nu muka hiji fort taun 1512. Alatan lokasina nu mangrupa puseur perdagangan rempah-rempah salila Age of Discovery, rekaman sajarah bituna gunung seuneuan di Halmahera geus aya ti saprak awal abad ka-16.
| Ngaran | Shape | Jangkung | Bitu pangpandeurina (VEI) | Géolokasi | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (m) | (ft) | ||||
| Tarakan | pyroclastic cone | 318 | 1,043 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Dukono | complex volcano | 1,335 | 4,380 | 13 Agustus 1933 (3) | |
| Tobaru | teu kanyahoan | 1,035 | 3,396 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Ibu | stratovolcano | 1,325 | 4,347 | Mei 2005 (0) | |
| Gamkonora | stratovolcano | 1,635 | 5,364 | 9 Juli 2007 (?) | |
| Todoko-Ranu | kaldera | 979 | 3,212 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Jailolo | stratovolcano | 1,130 | 3,707 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Hiri | stratovolcano | 630 | 2,067 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Gamalama | stratovolcano | 1,715 | 5,627 | 31 Juli 2003 (2) | |
| Tidore | stratovolcano | 1,730 | 5,676 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Mare | stratovolcano | 308 | 1,010 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Moti | stratovolcano | 950 | 3,117 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Makian | stratovolcano | 1,357 | 4,452 | 29 Juli 1988 (3) | |
| Tigalalu | stratovolcano | 422 | 1,385 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Amasing | stratovolcano | 1,030 | 3,379 | teu kanyahoan | |
| Bibinoi | stratovolcano | 900 | 2,953 | teu kanyahoan | |
Bitu gedé
[édit | édit sumber]Di handap ieu daptar bitu gedé pinilih tina gunung seuneuan di Indonésia, disortir sacara kronologis dumasar kana tanggal. Ukur bitu nu skalana 3 VEI atawa leuwih anu dipidangkeun di dieu dibarengan jeung jeung sumber sarta karuksakannana, kajaba lamun aya bitu nu skalana leutik tapi ngabalukarkeun karuksakan nu gedé.
| Tgl bitu | Gunung seuneuan | Tgl eureun | VEI | Pasipatan | Tsunami | Volumeu tephra | Karuksakan | Sumber |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 20 Jan 1992 | Merapi | 19 Okt 2002 | 2 | cv,pf,ld,lm | henteu | N/A | 66 | [5] |
| 10 Péb 1990 | Kelut | Mar 1990 | 4 | cv,cl,pf,ph,ld,lm | henteu | 0.13 km³ | 35 | [25] |
| 18 Jul 1983 | Colo | Des 1983 | 4 | cv,pf,ph | henteu | N/A | 0 | [25] |
| 5 Apr 1982 | Galunggung | 8 Jan 1983 | 4 | cv,pf,lf,lm | henteu | > 0.37 km³ | 68 | [26][27] |
| 6 Okt 1972 | Merapi | Mar 1985 | 2 | cv,pf,lf,ld,lm | henteu | 0.021 km³ | 29 | [5] |
| 26 Apr 1966 | Kelut | 27 Apr 1966 | 4 | cv,cl,pf,lm | henteu | 0.089 km³ | 212 | [25] |
| 17 Mar 1963 | Agung | 27 Jan 1964 | 5 | cv,pf,lf,lm | henteu | 1 km³ | 1,148 | [28] |
| 31 Agt 1951 | Kelut | 31 Agt 1951 | 4 | cv,cl,pf,lm | henteu | 0.2 km³ | 7 | [25] |
| 25 Nop 1930 | Merapi | Sep 1931 | 3 | cv,rf,pf,lf,ld,lm | henteu | 0.0017 km³ | 1,369 | [5] |
| 19 Méi 1919 | Kelut | 20 Mei 1919 | 4 | cv,cl,pf,lm | henteu | 0.19 km³ | 5,110 | [25] |
| 7 Jun 1892 | Awu | 12 Jun 1892 | 3 | cv,pf,lm | enya | N/A | 1,532 | [29] |
| 26 Agt 1883 | Krakatau | Feb 1884 | 6 | cv,se,pf,fa,lm,cc | 15–42 m | 5–8.5 km³ | 36,600 | [1][28][30] |
| 15 Apr 1872 | Merapi | 21 Apr 1872 | 4 | cv,pf | henteu | 0.33 km³ | 200 | [5] |
| 2 Mar 1856 | Awu | 17 Mar 1856 | 3 | cv,pf,lm | enya | 0.51±0.50 km³ | 2,806 | [29] |
| 8 Okt 1822 | Galunggung | Des 1822 | 5 | cv,pf,ld,lm | henteu | > 1 km³ | 4,011 | [25] |
| 10 Apr 1815 | Gunung Tambora | 15 Jul 1815 | 7 | cv,pf,cc | 1–2 m | 160 km³ | > 71,000 | [3][31] |
| 6 Agt 1812 | Awu | 8 Agt 1812 | 4 | cv,pf,lm | henteu | 0.55±0.50 km³ | 963 | [29] |
| 12 Agt 1772 | Papandayan | 12 Agt 1772 | 3 | cv,ph | henteu | N/A | 2,957 | [32] |
| 4 Agt 1672 | Merapi | teu katangen | 3 | cv,pf,lm | henteu | N/A | 3,000 | [5] |
| 1586 | Kelut | teu katangen | 5 | cf,cl,lm | henteu | > 1 km³ | 10,000 | [25] |
| ≈ 74,000 SK | Toba | teu katangen | 8 | pf,lf,cc | jigana | 2,800 km³ | deukeut populasi padumukan manusa |
[2] |
Catetan: cv=central vent eruption, pf=pyroclastic flow (aliran piroklastik), lf=lava flow (aliran lava), lm=lahar mudflow (aliran leutak lahar), cl=crater lake eruption (bitu situ kawah), ph=phreatic eruption (bitu préatik), ld=lava dome extrusion (ekstrusi momolo lava), cc=caldera collapse (ambrugna kaldéra), se=submarine volcano eruption (bitu gunung seuneuan jero laut, fa=fumarole activity (aktivitas fumarol), rf=radial fissure eruption (bitu rengatan radial).
Tempo ogé
[édit | édit sumber] | Portal Portal Portal Portal |
Rujukan
[édit | édit sumber]Rujukan umum
[édit | édit sumber]- ^ a M. Neumann van Padang (1951). "Indonésia". Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World and Solfatara Fields, 1, 1–271, Rome: IAVCEI.
- ^ a Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert (1994). Volcanoes of the World: A Regional Directory, Gazetteer, and Chronology of Volcanism During the Last 10,000 Years (Édisi 2nd ed.). Geoscience Press. ISBN 0945005121.
Catetan
[édit | édit sumber]- 1 2 3 Winchester, Simon (2003). Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-621285-5.
- 1 2 3 Oppenheimer, C. (2002). "Limited global change due to the largest known Quaternary eruption, Toba ≈74 kyr BP?". Quarternary Science Reviews. 21 (14–15): 1593–1609.
- 1 2 3 Stothers, Richard B. (1984). "The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath". Science. 224 (4654): 1191–1198.
- ↑ "Sajarah Letusan Kelut". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-12-19. Archived 2009-03-02 di Wayback Machine
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Sajarah Letusan Merapi". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-12-19. Archived 2007-08-20 di Wayback Machine
- ↑ "Summary Data Criteria". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-12-31.
- 1 2 Simoes, M., Avouac, J.P., Cattin, R., Henry, P. (2004). "The Sumatra subduction zone: A case for a locked fault zone extending into the mantle" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 109. doi:10.1029/2003JB002958. Pemeliharaan CS1: Banyak nama: authors list (link)
- ↑ Subarya, C., Chlieh, M., Prawirodirdjo, L., Avouac, J.P., Bock, Y., Sieh, K., Meltzner, A., Natawidjaja, D.H., McCaffrey, R. (2006). "Plate-boundary deformation associated with the great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake" (PDF). Nature. 440: 46–51. doi:10.1038/nature04522. Pemeliharaan CS1: Banyak nama: authors list (link)
- ↑ Lay, T., Kanamori, H., Ammon, C., Nettles, M., Ward, S., Aster, R., Beck, S., Bilek, S., Brudzinski, M., Butler, R., DeShon, H., Ekstrom, G. (2005). "The Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 26 December 2004" (PDF). Science. 308 (5725): 1127–1133. doi:10.1126/science.1112250. Pemeliharaan CS1: Banyak nama: authors list (link)
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Sumatra". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-11-17.
- ↑ Whittaker, R. J. (1993). "Anak Krakatau and old Krakatau: a reply". GeoJournal. 29 (4): 417–420.
- ↑ "Semeru Weekly Reports". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-12-07. Archived 2007-08-20 di Wayback Machine
- ↑ International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (1995). "Decade Volcano Update". Bulletin of Volcanology. 57 (1): 82–83.
- ↑ Ansje Löhr, Thom Bogaard, Alex Heikens, Martin Hendriks, Sri Sumarti, Manfred van Bergen, Kees C.A.M. van Gestel, Nico van Straalen, Pieter Vroonand, and Budi Widianarko (2005). "Natural Pollution Caused by the Extremely Acid Crater Lake Kawah Ijen, East Java, Indonésia". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 12 (2): 89–95. Pemeliharaan CS1: Banyak nama: authors list (link)
- ↑ "Mount Merapi Erupts". ANTARA. 15 May 2006. Diaksés tanggal 2006-11-17.
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Krakatau". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-11-17.
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Java". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-11-17.
- ↑ H. A. Brouwer (1939). "Exploration in the Lesser Sunda Islands". The Geographical Journal. 94 (1): 1–10.
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Lesser Sunda Islands". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-11-17.
- ↑ Christian Honthaasa, Jean-Pierre Réhaulta, René C. Maurya, Hervé Bellona, Christophe Hémonda, Jacques-André Maloda, Jean-Jacques Cornéeb, Michel Villeneuveb, Joseph Cottena, Safri Burhanuddinc, Hervé Guilloud and Nicolas Arnaud (1998). "A Neogene back-arc origin for the Banda Sea basins: geochemical and geochronological constraints from the Banda ridges (East Indonésia)". Tectonophysics. 298 (4): 297–317. doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(98)00190-5. Pemeliharaan CS1: Banyak nama: authors list (link)
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Banda Sea". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-11-17.
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Sulawesi". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-11-17. Archived 2006-12-30 di Wayback Machine
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Sangihe Islands". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-11-17.
- ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonésia - Halmahera". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-11-17.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Large Holocene Eruptions". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-12-18. Archived 2012-01-17 di Wayback Machine
- ↑ Katili, J.A. and Sudradjat, A. (1984). "Galunggung: the 1982-1983 eruption". Volcanology Survei Indonésia: 102. Pemeliharaan CS1: Banyak nama: authors list (link)
- ↑ "Galunggung, Java, Indonésia". Volcano World. Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University. Diaksés tanggal 2006-12-30.[tumbu nonaktif]
- 1 2 Michael R. Rampino and Stephen Self (1982). "Historic eruptions of Tambora (1815), Krakatau (1883), and Agung (1963), their stratospheric aerosols, and climatic impact". Quaternary Research. 18 (2): 127–143.
- 1 2 3 "Awu's Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Diaksés tanggal 2006-12-31. Archived 2007-07-07 di Wayback Machine
- ↑ B.H. Choi, E. Pelinovsky, K.O. Kim and J.S. Lee (2003). "Simulation of the trans-oceanic tsunami propagation due to the 1883 Krakatau volcanic eruption" (PDF). Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 3: 321–332. Pemeliharaan CS1: Banyak nama: authors list (link) Archived 2006-09-12 di Wayback Machine
- ↑ Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonésia) 1815". Progress in Physical Geography. 27 (2): 230–259.
- ↑ "The Deadliest Eruptions". Volcano World. Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University. Diaksés tanggal 2006-12-31. Archived 2008-07-09 di Wayback Machine
- ↑ Salah ngutip: Tanda
<ref>tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernamavsi - ↑ J.-C. Tanguy, Ch. Ribiére, A. Scarth and W.S. Tjetjep (1998). "Victims from volcanic eruptions: a revised database". Bulletin of Volcanology. 60: 137–144. doi:10.1007/s004450050222. Pemeliharaan CS1: Banyak nama: authors list (link)[tumbu nonaktif]